A bacterial cofactor
In 1979, the structure of a redox cofactor in certain bacterial enzymes was described. This real biological role gave PQQ the image of a fundamental, evolutionarily ancient molecule.
AFEGA Research Group
Substance profile 03 · Pyrroloquinoline quinone
PQQ
A redox molecule between vitamin narratives, mitochondrial research and small human studies.
PQQ was discovered as a bacterial cofactor. It later became “vitamin B14”, a “super-antioxidant” and a source of hope for new mitochondria, cognitive performance and longevity. This profile traces where these ideas originated — and separates their history from today’s scientific judgement.
Why PQQ fascinates
Four stages shaped today’s picture.
The PQQ narrative is modern. Biochemistry, a disputed vitamin hypothesis, cell research and longevity communication built on one another.
The vitamin-B14 episode
In 2003, PQQ was proposed as a new mammalian vitamin and quickly condensed by the media into “vitamin B14”. Direct scientific rebuttals in 2005 received much less public attention.
New mitochondria
A 2010 cell study linked PQQ to CREB, PGC-1α and markers of mitochondrial biogenesis. This laboratory finding gave rise to the catchy formulas “new mitochondria” and “more energy”.
Longevity and self-experimentation
Manufacturers, advice guides and biohacking communities connected mitochondria, cognition, CoQ10 and the hypothesis of a “longevity vitamin” into a comprehensive optimisation narrative.
A modern substance history
Foods are not a PQQ tradition
Traces of PQQ have been measured in plant, animal and fermented foods. Traditional use of natto or other foods, however, does not establish historical use of a molecule isolated only later.
“Vitamin B14” remained memorable
The term places PQQ in a familiar nutrient family. It is not scientifically established: a recognised human PQQ enzyme, a deficiency syndrome and a requirement value are lacking.
Metaphors explain its spread
“Spark of life”, “super-antioxidant” or “mitochondrial rejuvenation” condense complex initial findings. They document cultural appeal, but are not evidence of efficacy.
Attributed effects
What people associate with PQQ.
The origins of an idea are first described fairly. The current scientific assessment follows only in the expandable section.
01
New mitochondria and more energy
The proposed effect
PQQ is proposed to stimulate new mitochondria, support cellular energy production and thereby improve vitality, resilience or recovery.
Where it comes from
The central starting point is a study in murine liver tumour cells: PQQ activated CREB, increased PGC-1α and influenced downstream mitochondrial programmes. Advice guides turned this into “PQQ creates new mitochondria”.
Experience and meaning
Self-reports mention stable energy, better recovery or no changes. Such observations can matter personally, but without controls they do not show what caused a change.
Evidence base behind the proposed effect
Overall strength of this supporting evidence base:approx. 40 %
Mainly cellular and animal mechanisms, plus a very small human experiment with a molecular secondary endpoint. View the assessed studies →
What is the current state of research?
The current state of research
The CREB/PGC-1α signal is mechanistically well supported, but comes mainly from cell and animal models. In a small randomised training trial with 23 men, 20 mg PQQ daily increased PGC-1α more than placebo but produced no additional benefit in maximal oxygen uptake, test duration or body composition. In humans, this demonstrates a target signal, not a generally noticeable mitochondrial or energy effect.
02
Memory, attention and mental clarity
The proposed effect
PQQ is associated with better memory, concentration, attention and less “brain fog”. Some accounts go as far as protection against neurodegenerative diseases.
Where it comes from
Preclinical work on nerve growth factor, oxidative protection and protein aggregation was combined with several small human studies and manufacturer-linked curated study lists into a broad brain-health claim.
Experience and meaning
Subjectively perceived clarity or focus matter directly to users. Expectations, sleep, day-to-day condition and simultaneously changed routines can, however, help shape those impressions.
Evidence base behind the proposed effect
Overall strength of this supporting evidence base:approx. 40 %
Small positive studies with many tests, subgroups, manufacturer links and no large independent replication. View the assessed studies →
What is the current state of research?
The current state of research
Several small placebo-controlled 12-week studies using around 20 to 21,5 mg daily reported benefits in individual memory, attention or test scores. Samples were small, many endpoints and subgroups were tested, and several studies were close to a manufacturer setting. A large independent replication and an established overall clinical benefit are lacking. Claims about Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s or dementia cannot be derived from them.
03
Healthy ageing and longer life
The proposed effect
PQQ is described as a “longevity vitamin” that could rejuvenate cells, slow ageing processes or extend healthy lifespan.
Where it comes from
The narrative connects mitochondrial models, lifespan findings in model organisms and Bruce Ames’s theoretical concept of possible “longevity vitamins”. A research hypothesis was often turned into an established property of the substance.
Experience and meaning
Taking it can be experienced as long-term prevention or an expression of an active approach to ageing. This motive is understandable, but permits no conclusion about lifespan or biological rejuvenation.
Evidence base behind the proposed effect
Overall strength of this supporting evidence base:approx. 30 %
Vitamin and longevity narratives rely mainly on animal depletion studies, mechanisms and theoretical extrapolation. View the assessed studies →
What is the current state of research?
The current state of research
In models, PQQ influences processes of interest to ageing research. However, “longevity vitamin” is an expert hypothesis, not a recognised vitamin status. Human studies have shown neither life extension nor validated slowing of biological ageing nor a general extension of healthspan.
04
Antioxidant protection and inflammation regulation
The proposed effect
As a “super-antioxidant”, PQQ is said to undergo particularly many redox cycles, counter oxidative stress and favourably influence inflammatory processes.
Where it comes from
The real redox chemistry was condensed in consumer texts into rankings against vitamins C or E. The frequently cited figure of around 20.000 cycles usually circulates without a transparent experimental context.
Experience and meaning
Antioxidant “protection” is not directly perceptible. It often serves as an overarching explanatory model for very different expected effects.
Evidence base behind the proposed effect
Overall strength of this supporting evidence base:approx. 45 %
Chemical and preclinical redox findings are real, but clinical extrapolation relies on very small biomarker studies. View the assessed studies →
What is the current state of research?
The current state of research
PQQ is redox-active. Depending on the chemical environment, it can offer antioxidant protection or act as a pro-oxidant through hydrogen peroxide formation. Cell and animal models show effects on Nrf2, NF-κB and inflammatory markers; human data consist only of very small, short biomarker observations. This does not demonstrate treatment of chronic inflammation or general organ protection.
05
Physical function, strength and performance
The proposed effect
The energy model gave rise to expectations for endurance, muscle strength, resilience and recovery.
Where it comes from
Animal models, muscle markers and individual human studies were often condensed in communication into a uniform performance claim.
Experience and meaning
Training, sleep, motivation and natural fluctuations strongly influence perceived performance. Without predefined measures, personal attribution is especially difficult.
Origins & communicationGerman-language communication ↗
Evidence base behind the proposed effect
Overall strength of this supporting evidence base:approx. 40 %
One small positive functional RCT and mechanistic markers form a narrow, manufacturer-linked evidence base. View the assessed studies →
What is the current state of research?
The current state of research
A small RCT with 64 healthy adults reported benefits in individual strength and walking tests after 12 weeks. Another small RCT involving endurance training found no additional performance benefit despite increased PGC-1α. A positive functional signal therefore stands alongside an important null finding. Treatment of sarcopenia or frailty is not established.
06
Sleep, mood, metabolism and organ protection
The proposed effect
PQQ is also associated with better sleep, less tiredness and stress, and protection of the heart, liver, kidneys, skin and metabolism.
Where it comes from
A small open-label human study of subjective reports and a broad preclinical literature were bundled into a cluster of benefits. Many different models then appear as one overall systemic effect.
Experience and meaning
Sleep, mood and tiredness fluctuate and respond to many accompanying factors. Observations deserve attention, but should not be equated with effects on organs or diseases.
Origins & communicationConsumer synthesis ↗
Evidence base behind the proposed effect
Overall strength of this supporting evidence base:approx. 25 %
Very small open-label studies, combination products and preclinical findings underpin the broad sleep, mood, metabolism and organ claims. View the assessed studies →
What is the current state of research?
The current state of research
The sleep, mood and fatigue study included 17 people without a control group and supports at most a very early signal. Claims about the heart, metabolism, immunity and organs rely mainly on cell and animal data. A recent mouse model showed no advantages in weight, glucose or insulin despite favourable mitochondrial markers. Robust human evidence for prevention or treatment is lacking.
Personal experience
Take observations seriously — keep causes open.
Personal reports about PQQ focus mainly on energy, clarity, sleep, recovery and the absence of a noticeable effect. They can matter for personal decisions, but do not replace controlled assessment.
Only one change at a time
PQQ is often combined with CoQ10, NMN or other substances. An observation can then hardly be attributed to the individual substance.
Choose a specific outcome
Sleep duration, training performance and subjective clarity are different measures. A general “feeling of energy” cannot replace them.
Record expectations and the time course
Day-to-day condition, training, sleep, stress and expectations can contribute to the experience. An absent effect is also a relevant personal observation.
Substance form, food & absorption
“PQQ” is not the same in every context.
The free acid, disodium salt, hydrates and reaction products differ. Food measurements and supplement doses are also on very different scales.
Disodium salt in supplements
The European safety assessment applies to a specified PQQ disodium salt produced by fermentation. It cannot be applied indiscriminately to every form or purity.
Traces in foods
Measured amounts are in the low nanogram range and depend strongly on method and matrix. Robust rankings of the “best PQQ foods” do not exist.
Incomplete human pharmacokinetics
In a very small investigation, free PQQ reached its peak serum concentration after about two to three hours. Only a very small proportion appeared unchanged in urine; absolute absorption cannot be determined from this.
Which chemical species is ingested?
What actually circulates, and for how long?
What concentration reaches which tissue?
Does a function relevant to humans change?
Twenty milligrams as a supplement are at least approximately 250 times a conservative estimate of daily free-PQQ intake from foods. “Naturally occurring” and “nutritionally equivalent” are therefore not the same.
Studied doses
A common study protocol is not an optimal dose.
Dose, substance form, duration and population belong together. This overview describes research and authorisation frameworks, not personal instructions for use.
Cognition and function
Most common range in small human studies over six to twelve weeks.
Pharmacokinetics
Short weight-based protocols; primarily questions about blood, urine and biomarkers.
EU authorisation framework
Maximum amount for the specified novel-food use — not an effective dose or a requirement value.
Dose–response
The optimal dose, minimum effective threshold, long-term dose and responder profiles are unresolved.
Safety & interactions
Limited short-term assessment — long-term gaps.
The safety judgement applies to a defined form, dose and target group. An absence of observed problems is no guarantee for every person and duration.
The assessed scope
Up to 20 mg daily for healthy adults.
EFSA assessed the specified PQQ disodium salt at up to a maximum of 20 mg daily as safe for healthy adults — explicitly excluding pregnant and breastfeeding women. Use in children is not intended.
Kidney as a preclinical target organ
At high doses in rats, kidney crystals and other renal changes occurred. Human studies were not designed to assess kidney safety specifically or over the long term.
Special population groups
Sufficient data are lacking for kidney disease, liver disease, multimorbidity, very old or frail people, pregnancy, breastfeeding and children.
Interactions
Clinically established PQQ–drug interactions are not documented. However, direct interaction studies are lacking; an absence of evidence is no guarantee of freedom from interactions.
Combinations
There is no robust general basis for synergy or safety of PQQ combined with CoQ10, NMN or other “mitochondrial” substances.
Regulatory context
Authorisation does not answer the efficacy question.
Specified novel-food ingredient
PQQ disodium salt is authorised under defined manufacturing, purity, target-group and quantity conditions. This is not a medicinal-product authorisation.
No general authorisation of effect claims
The novel-food authorisation does not permit claims about memory, mitochondria, energy, the heart, inflammation or anti-ageing to be inferred.
EU conditions remain decisive
Novel foods authorised in the EU may in principle be marketable, provided the relevant specifications and conditions of use are met.
Frequently asked questions
The key distinctions at a glance.
Many misunderstandings arise when bacterial function, cell mechanism, personal experience and human effects are merged into a single statement.
01Is PQQ a vitamin?
Not in the recognised scientific and regulatory sense. The 2003 vitamin hypothesis was directly challenged methodologically and experimentally in 2005. A human PQQ-dependent enzyme, a deficiency syndrome and a requirement value are not established.
02Does PQQ create new mitochondria?
In cell models, PQQ activates a CREB/PGC-1α programme. A small human trial showed a PGC-1α signal but no additional performance or body-composition benefit. A clinically relevant general increase in mitochondria in humans has not been demonstrated.
03Does PQQ improve memory and attention?
Several small 12-week studies report isolated positive results. Because of small samples, numerous endpoints, subgroups and industry links, robust independent confirmation is still lacking.
04Does PQQ help with dementia or Parkinson’s disease?
There is no robust human evidence for this. Preclinical neuroprotection and small studies in healthy people must not be extrapolated to neurological diseases.
05Does PQQ increase energy or sports performance?
A small training RCT found no additional benefit for endurance performance or body composition despite increased PGC-1α. Personally perceived energy is possible, but is not confirmed as a general effect.
06Is PQQ a powerful antioxidant?
PQQ is a redox modulator. Depending on the chemical system, it can offer antioxidant protection or act as a pro-oxidant through hydrogen peroxide formation. Chemical redox capacity does not prove clinical protection in humans.
07Are 20 mg daily safe?
For the specified disodium salt, EFSA judged up to 20 mg daily safe in healthy adults, excluding pregnant and breastfeeding women. Long-term, kidney and disease data remain limited.
08Do PQQ and CoQ10 work better together?
The popular division of labour “PQQ builds, CoQ10 supplies” is vivid, but not evidence of synergy. Results from combination products cannot be attributed to PQQ alone.
Study-specific claims
How likely is each narrowly defined statement to be true?
Each percentage refers exclusively to the claim written beside it. The assessment is not whether a substance “works overall”, but how plausible the specific statement is in light of the study, counterfindings and applicability.
Two different measures: the small bars in the effect cards assess the strength of two evidence bases. The detailed percentages below instead assess the probability of each specifically formulated claim. Study quality is an important basis for this, but is not equivalent to truth.
Killgore et al. 1989approx. 45 %
PQQ is an essential dietary factor for normal growth and reproduction in the mice studied.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 45 %
Rationale: Early depletion finding whose specificity is limited by contamination, feeding conditions and a lack of clear replication.
Kasahara & Kato 2003 and rebuttals 2005approx. 10 %
PQQ is a vitamin for humans.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 10 %
Rationale: The central enzyme assignment was challenged methodologically and experimentally; a human deficiency syndrome, requirement value and PQQ-dependent enzyme are lacking.
Chowanadisai et al. 2010approx. 90 %
In Hepa1-6 cells, PQQ activates a CREB/PGC-1α programme and increases markers of mitochondrial biogenesis.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 90 %
Rationale: Clear cell-model finding with mechanistic support; extrapolation to a noticeable human effect is a separate question.
Harris et al. 2013approx. 55 %
Short-term PQQ intake changes selected inflammatory and metabolic markers in healthy adults.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 55 %
Rationale: Direct human measurements, but only ten people, short duration, many exploratory markers and no clinical endpoints.
Hwang et al. 2020approx. 80 %
20 mg PQQ daily added to endurance training improve neither maximal oxygen uptake nor body composition in untrained men.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 80 %
Rationale: Randomised controlled training experiment; small sample, but a consistent null finding for the performance outcomes that were a priori relevant.
Hwang et al. 2020 – PGC-1αapprox. 60 %
20 mg PQQ daily increase PGC-1α levels more than placebo in untrained men during a six-week training programme.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 60 %
Rationale: Positive molecular secondary endpoint in a small RCT; no corresponding improvement in performance or body composition.
Itoh et al. 2016approx. 55 %
After twelve weeks, PQQ slightly improves individual attention and memory tests in adults.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 55 %
Rationale: Placebo-controlled RCT with 41 people, but multiple tests and selective signals; independent replication is lacking.
Shiojima et al. 2022approx. 55 %
After twelve weeks, PQQ slightly improves individual cognitive test scores in healthy adults.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 55 %
Rationale: Randomised study with 64 people; numerous endpoints, manufacturer links and no large independent confirmation.
Tamakoshi et al. 2023approx. 55 %
After twelve weeks, PQQ slightly improves individual memory scores in healthy adults.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 55 %
Rationale: Placebo-controlled signal, but small sample, post hoc age groups and a manufacturer-linked setting.
Shiojima et al. 2024approx. 50 %
After twelve weeks, PQQ slightly improves individual strength and walking parameters in healthy older adults.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 50 %
Rationale: Small RCT with selective functional signals and manufacturer links; the training RCT showed no performance benefit.
Nakano et al. 2012approx. 30 %
PQQ reliably improves sleep, mood and fatigue in humans.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 30 %
Rationale: Only 17 participants, open-label and without placebo control; expectation, time and multiple-testing effects cannot be separated.
Zhang et al. 2025approx. 20 %
In the high-fat mouse model used, PQQ improves weight, glucose or insulin resistance despite mitochondrial marker signals.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 20 %
Rationale: The direct animal-model experiment found precisely no advantage in these metabolic endpoints; this argues against a simple marker-to-benefit extrapolation.
Nakano et al. 2014 — toxicologyapprox. 80 %
Very high PQQ doses can cause kidney changes in rats.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: approx. 80 %
Rationale: Dose-related toxicological animal finding; exposure and applicability to usual human amounts must be considered separately.
Baltic et al. 2024 — combination RCTCannot be reliably quantified
The signals observed in the combination study were caused by PQQ alone.
Estimated probability that this claim is true: cannot be reliably quantified
Rationale: PQQ was studied together with hydrogen-generating minerals. A small sample, short duration and combination design do not allow attribution to a single substance.
Important: “not independently supported” does not mean “disproved”. Conversely, a lack of disproof is not evidence of efficacy. Substance form, dose, population, duration and endpoint limit every statement.
Sources & transparency
The history of effects and the current research have distinct functions.
This profile combines 24 documented effect claims and 18 reconstructed shifts in meaning with a separate scientific assessment. Sources on the origins of an idea do not automatically serve as evidence of efficacy.
Transparency notice
The AFEGA Anti-Aging-Shop, operated separately from the AFEGA Research Group, also sells PQQ products. The scientific assessment is carried out independently of product interests. This profile is not a product appraisal.
- 01Salisbury et al. 1979: structure and discovery ↗
- 02Killgore et al. 1989: dietary-factor hypothesis ↗
- 03Kasahara & Kato 2003: vitamin hypothesis ↗
- 04Felton & Anthony 2005: rebuttal ↗
- 05Rucker et al. 2005: replication rebuttal ↗
- 06Chowanadisai et al. 2010: mitochondrial signalling pathways ↗
- 07Harris et al. 2013: pharmacokinetics and biomarkers ↗
- 08Hwang et al. 2020: training and PGC-1α ↗
- 09Itoh et al. 2016: cognition ↗
- 10Shiojima et al. 2022: cognition ↗
- 11Tamakoshi et al. 2023: cognition ↗
- 12Shiojima et al. 2024: physical function ↗
- 13EFSA 2017: safety assessment ↗
- 14EU 2018/1122: novel-food authorisation ↗
- 15BLV: novel foods ↗
AFEGA’s perspective
PQQ shows particularly clearly how a real biochemical starting point can become a compelling vitamin, energy and longevity narrative. The substance is scientifically interesting; as a general active substance for humans it is not yet sufficiently confirmed.Go to the substance library →